Chapter 13. Formation of Galaxies.   

The birth and evolution of galaxies are closely linked to the postulated existence of K enhancing plasma bodies. In our model, the formation of a galaxy starts at the plasma body at the very centre of the coming galaxy. There is no significant contribution from condensation of cosmic matter.

If the universe is populated by repulsive plasma bodies as postulated in the previous chapter, they will push apart by virtue of their repulsive nature. If these repulsive plasma bodies are prevailing over regular gravitational matter, we have an expanding universe, which seems to be the case. We suppose that the plasma bodies acquire their repulsive feature through a mechanism of enhancement of the amplitude of Ks for interacting with elementary particles.

The denser the plasma bodies reside in a certain region of the universe, the more enhanced will the background K flux become in that region. And vice versa. As the universe is accelerated apart, the less will the background K flux be enhanced, and hence there will be a relative drop in K flux as the universe keeps expanding. (Drop in K flux here means that the same density of Ks will not interact with EPs quite as often.)

We can sum it up like this:

• The universe expands and the K-flux is reduced. 
• Other plasma bodies erupt into galaxies which drain the universe for some K flux. 
• The K-flux constitutes the strong force which keeps the plasma body together. 
• Hence the strong force gets weaker as the universe expands. 
• The rotation causes masses along the equator to gain more distance from the centre due to reduction in the strong force (somewhat exaggerated in fig. 21). 

Fig. 21. As the K flux weakens, the rotating plasma body becomes more flattened and less stable.

Model for Galaxy formation.

Let us follow one particular repulsive plasma body as it drifted apart from the other plasma bodies in a universe of decreasing K flux. Such a plasma body has opposite gravitation, and probably no electromagnetic forces to keep it together. There is only the strong force which can keep it together. And the strong force is proportional to the K flux.

Before the formation of a galaxy, this huge, rotating body of K-enhancing plasma experienced a steady decrease in the strong force due to the decrease in the K flux. At some point the strong nuclear force which kept the plasma body together, reached a critically low level. The body’s surface could no longer resist the centrifugal forces and other expansive forces within the body, the surface would burst open and the body would erupt plasma like a volcano at the equator.

First at one place, but this would create an imbalance which caused an eruption at the opposite side of the plasma sphere as well. After a while the excessive outward pressure in the plasma sphere was released, and the plasma sphere regained its balance and its surface would close again. The main bulk of the original plasma sphere would remain as a repulsive plasma sphere at the centre of the newborn galaxy. See Figures 20 – 22 for the development of the first stages of the galaxy.

Fig. 22. The three first stages of a plasma body erupting into a galaxy. Left: the rotating plasma sphere. Middle: the sphere erupts plasma (matter) at the equator. Right: Eruption in one place creates an imbalance which will probably prompt an eruption at the opposite side as well. The red spheres represent the erupted plasma, which after eruption will undergo a ferocious activity as it converts to regular matter. This will cause the matter in the galactic arms to spread out.  

The erupted plasma will start converting into regular gravitational matter. It is expected to take some time before the amount of converted matter is sufficient to set up a strong gravitational field. Only then can the erupted plasma form galaxies with regular gravitational matter as we know them. In the beginning the erupted plasma will be accelerated outwards by the repulsive force from the centrally placed plasma sphere, since there is no attractive force present in the beginning. The erupted plasma will convert to regular gravitational matter over a long period of time.

Repulsive K emitting plasma at the centre of galaxies.

When the eruption stops, the plasma body has erupted the matter which makes up a galaxy. But still, most of its mass remains inside the rotating plasma sphere. The repulsive plasma body will therefore reside at the centre of the galaxy, where today’s paradigm in physics claims there is a black hole. Recent observations, however, show that the dark plasma in the centre of galaxies probably sends out more energy than it absorbs. This is a good starting point for our model.

In the next stage of the development of a galaxy, the newly erupted matter is scattered in a V shaped disc. At first the erupted plasma will press outwards, and ferocious activity will make it expand sideways as well. Therefore young galaxies must have a rather wide disc structure.

Fig. 23. Cross section of a young galaxy, rotated 90 degrees compared to the view in Fig. 23. The red spheres represent regular matter, or plasma in the process of converting to regular matter. The dark sphere in the centre of the galaxy represents the repulsive plasma body.  

The reason the disc is V-shaped and not flat, stems from the ferocious, exothermic process of converting plasma into regular matter, which will scatter the outward moving matter sideways. At this stage, little of the erupted plasma has converted to regular matter yet, hence gravity is still very weak, and therefore there is little rotational drag in very young galaxies.

Only much later, when gravitation from regular matter outnumbers the repulsive force from the plasma body, will the rotational drag flatten the galactic matter over many rotations. In Fig. 24, quite some time has passed. Much of the erupted plasma has transformed to normal, gravitational matter. The flat shape of the galaxy is here explained by the same mathematical models which claim that a dust cloud will eventually form a disc shape because of the combined effect of the rotational drag and the gravitation.

Fig. 24. Cross section of an older galaxy. Increased gravity together with the rotational drag has flattened the galaxy into a disc shape.

Consequence 26: Galaxy flatness.

Young galaxies have a rather wide disc structure, and evolve into a flat disc structure because of the rotational drag, which is a combined effect of rotation and gravity.

It is evident from Figures 23-24 that we envision that the black hole in the middle is replaced by a repulsive plasma body. This will greatly limit what kind of observations we can have for the energy exchange between galactic cores and their surroundings. Nowhere in the universe can we accept that the black centre core of a galaxy attracts energy, the repulsive plasma can at most be fairly energy neutral.

It is generally claimed that black holes attract matter and therefore would grow. In our case, at best the core will stay inactive, and therefore be energy neutral, but most likely the plasma body will evaporate some matter as it is hit by high velocity objects which penetrate its repulsive field. Probably this will be a rather frequent incident, which supplies energy and matter to the corona around the repulsive plasma body.

The spiral shape of galaxies strongly indicates a start where a huge, rotating, K-emitting body has an outbreak of masses along the equator, throwing the masses out, see Fig. 22. Also, the rather constant speed of matter (stars) throughout the galaxy indicates that all matter started with about the same rotational speed. One should expect that the very first matter which erupted, would have the greatest speed for two reasons:

• In the beginning, the forces were only repulsive, so the first erupted matter had the longest period of repulsive acceleration. 
• The radius at the equator would be at its largest at the beginning of the eruption. 

Since it is known that solar systems move slightly faster the further out they are positioned away from the galactic centre, this is a good starting point for our model. Newtonian gravitation on the other hand indicates that the speed of outer stars should be less than 1/2 of what is observed. So the prevailing paradigm does not fit with empirical findings. For this reason dark matter has been invented, and spread out in the galaxy in a manner to make calculations fit according to Newtonian gravitation. Our model for the galaxy denies the existence of any non-baryonic dark matter, since our calculations comply fairly well with empirical data without any such invention.

Consequence 27:

At the time the plasma body erupted into a galaxy, matter was thrown out from the equatorial plane of the rotating plasma body from distinct locations, and this caused the matter to form the typical spiral arms. A rather constant radius and speed of rotation in the plasma body caused the velocity of matter to be rather uniform in the entire galaxy. Because the earliest erupted matter has experienced more outward acceleration by repulsive plasma, the stars will exhibit a somewhat higher velocity the further out in the galaxy you measure their velocity.

An obvious, but slightly surprising consequence of splitting matter in K-amplitude enhancing and K-amplitude reducing matter, is that also repulsive plasma which generate no attractive gravitational field, will themselves be attracted to K-transforming matter and repelled by K enhancing matter just like regular matter. The repulsive plasma spheres are under the same influence of the resulting net K-flux, because they interact with Ks equally frequently as regular matter does. Hence any net surplus of regular K flux will push a plasma body in exactly the same direction as it will push regular matter.

 If there is a K-flux deficiency from the side of matter, then also plasma bodies are pushed towards the regular gravitational matter, just like regular matter would be pushed towards regular matter. In this case we see the ultimate symmetry breaking of forces. A repulsive plasma body will push a celestial body of regular matter away, while the celestial body will set up a K flux deficiency allowing the background K flux to push the repulsive plasma body towards the celestial body.

Here we see the disturbing combination that one celestial body containing one type of matter can be attracted to a second celestial body containing the other type of matter, while the other body is repelled by the first. The deeper consequence of this is that two bodies of matter do not necessarily exert the same attractive force on each other.

In this context F₁ ≠ F₂ goes much further than the modest effect described under modified gravitation in chapter 4.

These unequal forces also demonstrate that gravity is not an attractive force, but rather a force by proxy, hence there is no violation of the general principle that a force equals its counterforce, because F₂ is not the counterforce of F₁. Only when you count the whole universe will this comply with the general law that a force equals its counterforce. So the principles according to forces by proxy complicate the picture a bit.

Consequence 28:

All matter reacts proportional to its total mass to a deviance in K-flux. This applies to both matter setting up a repulsive K-flux by being net K amplitude enhancing, and matter setting up an attractive K-flux (gravitation) by being net K amplitude reducing.

The evolution of galaxies.

Erupted plasma will gradually convert to regular gravitational matter, which has several properties which set it apart from the repulsive plasma.

• Regular matter has protons and electrons. 
• Regular matter switches K sign and generates long range electromagnetic fields. 
• Gravity is a side effect of switching K sign because it also transforms regular Ks, which in this process loose a minute fraction of their affinity (amplitude) for interacting with matter. 
• Neither long range electric force nor gravity were present to any considerable degree until the plasma sphere erupted into a galaxy. 

The erupted plasma.

Probably there is a critical surface curvature for the lattice structure of a repulsive plasma sphere. If the surface of the erupted plasma spheres bends too much, the surface may be unstable and evaporate neutron.

Another destabilizing effect is the highly exothermic nature of the reactions undertaken when plasma converts to regular matter. High energy particles will easily penetrate the repulsive shield of small plasma spheres and knock out neutrons or small clusters of plasma, which will disperse very quickly. The process of forming free neutrons starts immediately at eruption, but can go on for very long. From a neutron is released, it takes only about 15 minutes for a free neutron to split into a proton-electron pair. See Fig. 23 for how the matter distribution in a young galaxy should look.

In the chapter on electrostatic forces we have argued that the most probable reason why matter down-regulates K amplitudes, is a side effect of the process of changing K sign in order to generate electrostatic forces. Neither long range electric force nor gravity exist to any considerable degree in a plasma body. These forces arise when the plasma body erupts and the erupted plasma starts converting to regular matter.

 A spiral galaxy. Credit: ESO (WFI /    2.2 m), Davide De Martin

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